By Sylvia Wright • ITS-Davis senior director of communications

The University of California, Davis, Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS-Davis) was selected in a national competition in September 2013 to lead a new two-year, $11.2 million research, education, and outreach consortium for the U.S. Department of Transportation.

The new National Center for Sustainable Transportation will help federal, state, regional, and local agencies reduce the greenhouse-gas emissions from passenger and freight travel that contribute to climate change through research in four thematic areas: toward zero-emission vehicle and fuel technologies; low-carbon infrastructure and efficient system operation; low-impact travel and sustainable land use; and institutional change.

The other consortium members are University of California, Riverside (UC Riverside); University of Southern California (USC); California State University, Long Beach (CSULB); University of Vermont (UVM); and Georgia Institute of Technology (Georgia Tech).

“The United States has sharply reduced many of the transportation sector’s most damaging environmental impacts on air, water, natural ecosystems and human health,” said UC Davis professor of environmental science and policy Susan Handy, who is director of the UC Davis Urban Land Use and Transportation Center, and will be the director of the new National Center for Sustainable Transportation.

“However, one major impact that hasn’t received enough attention is climate change, which is a game changer. Fortunately, almost all strategies to reduce greenhouse-gas emissions from transportation also improve economic efficiency, energy security, social equity, livability and health,” Handy said.

The National Center will receive $5.6 million from the U.S. DOT and $5.6 million in matching funds from state, regional and local agencies to support its research. In California, matching funds have been promised by Caltrans, the California Air Resources Board, and the South Coast Air Quality Management District.

“The goal of the National Center is to transform the transportation system to improve environmental sustainability nationwide. We aim to provide leadership that produces meaningful action by mobilizing innovative research teams and partnering with influential stakeholders,” said Dan Sperling, director of ITS-Davis, and the new national center’s executive director.

 The National Center will:

• mobilize a network of universities to generate knowledge and tools that address climate change and environmental sustainability in transportation;
• design and evaluate real-world strategies that contribute to mitigation of GHG emissions and other environmental impacts; and
• deliver knowledge and tools to state DOTs, Metropolitan Planning Organizations (MPOs) and local governments to support implementation of these real-world strategies.

The UC Davis Institute of Transportation Studies is the world’s leading university program on sustainable transportation.

Handy is the former director of the U.S. DOT-funded Sustainable Transportation Center, a predecessor to the new national center, and a member of many TRB standing and conference committees. She is on the board of the World Society of Transportation and Land Use Research and the editorial boards of seven international peer-reviewed journals. She has authored over 75 peer-reviewed articles, 10 book chapters, and 70 research reports and other publications.

Sperling is a member of the Executive Committee of the U.S. Transportation Research Board (TRB), chaired the University Transportation Center National Spotlight Conference on Sustainable Energy and Transportation in 2012, is the 2013 chairman of the California Fuel Cell Partnership, is a board member of the California Air Resources Board, has served on 13 National Research Council (NRC) committees on transportation and environmental topics, chaired the first transportation committee of the Davos World Economic Forum (2010), testified to Congress seven times, and has authored 12 books and over 200 technical papers and reports.

The other consortium institutions also have distinguished accomplishments:

• UC Riverside’s Center for Environmental Research and Technology has been at the forefront of emissions measurements and analysis for various transportation modes, vehicle technologies, and fuels. It pioneered the development of transportation/emissions models. Its faculty play prominent roles on national and state committees related to emissions measurement systems, secondary air pollution, and port-related vehicle activity. CE-CERT Director Matthew Barth is co-chair of U.S. EPA’s Mobile Source Technical Advisory Subcommittee on Modeling and president-elect for the Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) Intelligent Transportation Systems Society. http://www.cert.ucr.edu/

• The METRANS Transportation Center is a joint partnership of the University of Southern California and California State University Long Beach.  Since its establishment in 1998, METRANS researchers have been developing and examining solutions to the transportation problems of major metropolitan areas.  Drawing researchers from many disciplines, METRANS has become the national leader for urban freight research, and for addressing environmental impacts of goods movement.    METRANS Director Genevieve Giuliano holds the Ferraro Chair in Effective Local Government, is a past chair of the TRB and a recipient of several academic awards. http://www.metrans.org/.

• Georgia Tech is at the forefront of vehicle and personal activity monitoring, driver behavior analysis, traffic simulation, and environmental monitoring and modeling. The research team manages more than $2.5 million per year in applied research, much of which is performed for state and local agencies. Associate director Randall Guensler is a former chair of the TRB Transportation and Air Quality Committee and served on the U.S. EPA’s Mobile Source Technical Advisory Subcommittee. http://ce.gatech.edu/

• UVM’s Transportation Research Center (founded in 2006) has quickly amassed a concentration of research data, models, and programs focused on environmental sustainability for both rural and micropolitan areas. UVM researchers serve on ten TRB committees. University of Vermont UTC Director Lisa Aultman-Hall chaired the 2010 TRB UTC Spotlight conference on Transportation Systems for Livable Communities and serves on the TRB Task Force on the Future of the National Household Transportation Survey (NHTS) and the TRB Committee on Travel Survey Methods. http://www.uvm.edu/trc

U.S. Congressman John Garamendi (D-Fairfield), a member of the House Transportation and Infrastructure Committee, congratulated UC Davis on the grant. “UC Davis is a recognized leader in cutting-edge research to reduce our impact on climate change,” he said in a statement. “This is the second big federal grant in a week for such research at UC Davis, following the $1.5 million ARPA-E grant to convert ethylene to a liquid fuel, and I couldn’t be happier for the researchers, administrators and students involved.”

 

Photo: UC Davis professor of environmental science and policy Susan Handy, who is director of the UC Davis Urban Land Use and Transportation Center, will be the director of the new National Center for Sustainable Transportation. Photo credit: Dorian Toy, UC Davis 2014

ITS-Davis director Dan Sperling, and UC Davis professor of Environmental Science and Policy Joan Ogden are both set to speak at this year’s California Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Summit on Oct 9-10 in Sacramento, California.

Ogden will focus on pathways analysis and the economics of hydrogen infrastructure planning, while Sperling will wrap up the conference by discussing what the California hydrogen and fuel cell industry is expected to be like in 2020 as the Summit’s concluding speaker.

The two-day event will provide a balanced forum for businesses, academia, and government agencies to explore hydrogen and fuel cells, with a special focus on picturing the vision and promise of the technology contrasted by the advances already made, using hard data from industry developments in the real world. Presenters from around the country will share their vision of how this industry can address the nation’s environmental, energy and business goals and help revolutionize our country’s portfolio of energy solutions.

For more about the Summit, visit here

Michael Radenbaugh, a current master’s-degree student in Transportation Technology and Policy at UC Davis, has successfully raised the required $100,000 production capital on a Kickstarter.com campaign for a new company he co-founded that introduced a novel form of golfer transportation called the “Golf Board”.

Radenbaugh and his team, which include company spokespersons like surfing legend Laird Hamilton and fitness icon Don Wildman, hope the Golf Board will “change the way you experience the game of golf” by bringing modern technology to a traditional game.

The Golf Board is essentially an electric-powered longboard that “allows golfers to surf the golf course in a way that feels similar to snowboarding, surfing or skateboarding,” according to the Golf Board site. Its removable handlebar allows it to be ridden by both inexperienced and experienced board riders. It has a golf bag holder, flexible board for smooth suspension, and remote control for smooth acceleration.

There is also little environmental impact from the Golf Board. The lithium batteries inside the board are similar to the batteries used in well-known electric vehicles such as the Tesla and can carry a 180-pound rider over 20 miles on a full charge, according to the Golf Board site.

Additionally, due to its light weight, the Golf Board has less of an impact on golf terrain than traditional golf carts.

Dan Sperling, director of the UC Davis Institute of Transportation Studies, said Radenbaugh’s invention “is an example of the innovativeness and entrepreneurship of our students.”

For more information about this project, including a video, visit the Golf Board page on Kickstarter.

Alissa Kendall, associate professor of Civil & Environmental Engineering at UC Davis, has received the 2013 Laudise Young Researcher Prize from the International Society for Industrial Ecology (ISIE). The Laudise Prize is awarded biannually and recognizes outstanding achievements in industrial ecology by researchers under the age of 36.

Kendall received the prize for her work on life cycle assessments of biofuel production pathways, agricultural systems, vehicles, and transportation infrastructure. The prize additionally commends Kendall for her ongoing research on carbon accounting practices and the role of LCA in policy.

In addition to the research areas described, curriculum development was also an important reason for the award. Kendall says her “ability to develop courses in Industrial Ecology is due to UC Davis’s openness to evolving fields and interdisciplinary teaching and learning.”

The International Society for Industrial Ecology is an interdisciplinary forum of natural and social scientists, engineers, policymakers and practitioners that promotes the use of industrial ecology in research, education, industrial practices, policy, and community development in order to transform society and achieve a more sustainable economy.

For more on the ISIE award, visit here.

Photo: Alissa Kendall receives the ISIE prize at an awards ceremony in Ulsan, Korea on June 28, 2013. (Elias Marvinney – UC Davis)

By Jonathan Mao • UC Davis 2014

When Elon Musk, innovator and co-founder of ventures such as Tesla Motors and SpaceX, revealed his idea of a transportation system running from San Francisco to Los Angeles within a tube of air on August 12, news reporters sought out ITS-Davis director Dan Sperling for his opinion.

Musk said Hyperloop would be a more affordable and energy-efficient alternative to the California High-Speed Rail project, and would allow people to travel between San Francisco and Los Angeles in 30 minutes for under $20. It would work “like a puck flying across an air-hockey table,” with the passenger capsule propelled by electromagnetic pulses through the pipes.

Sperling expressed doubt as to whether California voters would allow such a large-scale project to be built. Aside from the engineering and design obstacles, he said, getting policymakers and California voters to approve such a large-scale, novel transportation project would be challenging.

“We have difficulty building solar collectors in the desert, for heaven’s sake, so any major infrastructure project is going to be difficult,” Sperling told the San Francisco Chronicle. 

In an interview with KQED-FM, the public radio station in San Francisco, Sperling pointed out alternative, more efficient, and less polarizing means of travel.

“We can do personal mobility in a far more efficient way… Such as very lightweight vehicles on a track… We don’t need [big tech innovation, like Hyperloop] to be far more efficient and still have personal mobility,” he said. But there must be more government and industry support for those solutions. “Right now, we’re basically suffocating the baby in the crib,” he said.

Speaking with Al-Jazeera America’s Joseph Brownstein, Sperling said “there’s no way the [Hyperloop] economics would ever work out” and “if it was such a good idea, there’d be competition… there’d be parallel lines because everyone would be making money out of it.” That comment was repeated in the New York Times Bits blog.

 

By Jamie Knapp • J Knapp Communications

It’s hard to imagine ITS-Davis without Pat Mokhtarian. The beloved and respected Civil and Environmental Engineering professor, who has served as the Institute’s associate director for education and as founding chair and graduate advisor of the Transportation Technology and Policy (TTP) Graduate Group, retired in June.

Since 1990, when she arrived in Davis, Mokhtarian has mentored students, conducted probing and thought-provoking research, and inspired colleagues around the world.

“It’s impossible to put into words how much Pat means to ITS-Davis and to me, personally,” said friend and colleague Susan Handy, professor and chair of Environmental Science and Policy. “I started out as a post-doc with Pat 20 years ago. She made my career in so many different ways.”

Current and former students echo Handy’s sentiment, recalling fondly Mokhtarian’s notoriously tough, but rewarding, Transportation Survey Methods course, TTP 200, as one of their best classes.

“I’ll never look at a survey again without a skeptical eye – thanks to the training that Pat provided,” said alumnus Anthony Eggert, who now directs the UC Davis Policy Institute for Energy, Environment and the Economy.

“I’m your forever student, wherever you go,” said alumnus Sangho Choo, via video, from Seoul where he is an assistant professor in the Department of Urban Design and Planning at Hongik University.

Mokhtarian has served on 136 thesis and dissertation committees, instilling in students an appreciation for the application of rigorous quantitative methods to the study of travel behavior, her research specialty.

“My legacy is in the lives of students that I advise and teach,” Mokhtarian said. “I hope I’m helping to train them to think critically and evaluate all alternatives, not taking their own predispositions for granted. If I succeed in helping them do that, they’ll be better professionals – whether their career finds them in academia, private business or government. It’s good training for life,” she said.

Mokhtarian has further demonstrated her commitment to teaching as one of the driving forces behind the creation of the TTP Graduate Group, which she chaired for 15 years before stepping down last fall.

“I will remember her always for her leadership in building and running TTP,” said ITS-Davis Director Dan Sperling. “Her commitment and focus have elevated TTP into a premier graduate program.”

In addition to her legacy as a dedicated teacher and mentor, Mokhtarian is a highly skilled and productive researcher. She has authored or co-authored more than 160 technical reports, including more than 120 refereed journal articles. She is the founding chair of the Committee on Telecommunications and Travel Behavior (now the Committee on the Effects of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) on Travel Choices) of the Transportation Research Board. She is often quoted in the mainstream media as the “go-to” expert on telecommuting, and her entire body of research has challenged conventional wisdom in several ways: with respect to the impacts of ICT on travel more generally; attitudes toward travel itself; and the role of attitudinal self-selection in understanding the influence of land use on travel behavior.

Mokhtarian is returning to her Southern roots and will be a professor in the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology. “The opportunity to be closer to family and to work at an outstanding school was a powerful combination,” she says.

Still, she adds, leaving Davis is bittersweet.

“This has been my dream job. I couldn’t have asked for a better academic position. I’ve been amazingly happy here for the last 23 years. I’m looking forward to being a professor emerita of UC Davis for life.”

We will miss you, Pat.

Photo: Pat Mokhtarian smiles as students, faculty members and alumni share their farewell speeches at her retirement celebration on June 29 at the UC Davis Beuhler Alumni and Visitors Center. In the background is one of her former students, Cynthia Chen (Ph.D., 2001). (Dorian Toy – UC Davis)

The city of Davis was named the “Coolest California City” on June 27 by the California Air Resources Board for its success in reducing households’ carbon footprints. ARB Chairman Mary D. Nichols said that Davis, runners-up Chula Vista and Tracy, and five other competing cities collectively reduced greenhouse gas emissions by more than 220 metric tons.

The eight cities were asked to motivate residents to take every day actions, such as biking instead of driving, that would reduce overall energy use and carbon emissions in order to earn points, which represented how much carbon emissions were reduced. Participants were also able to monitor their energy usage through the coolcalifornia.org website, developed by researchers at the ARB, the nonprofit Next 10, and UC Berkeley.

This challenge, launched and funded by the ARB to “inform future efforts to promote and quantify carbon footprint reductions and help establish best practices for citizen engagement,” allowed researchers to examine how best to engage city residents in reducing energy usage and carbon emissions.

According to an ARB spokesperson, “Davis successfully engaged hundreds of residents to track and reduce their energy use and miles driven — to collectively reduce the city’s carbon footprint. Davis has set a goal to engage 75 percent of its households in voluntary greenhouse gas reduction activities by 2015.” Over 439 households in Davis participated to reduce 59 metric tons of carbon emissions.

Daniel Sperling, director of the Institute of Transportation Studies at UC Davis, comments: “The City of Davis earned this award through decades of leadership on energy efficiency and environmental stewardship. ITS-Davis plays an important role in providing the research to support city policies, through its cutting-edge research,  but also through the contributions of many of our researchers, students and staff who participate as private individuals in many of the city’s programs  Davis.  Not only do we think globally, we act locally!”

An event on Sept. 5 will be held to honor the participants in the CoolCalifornia Challenge, and a second round will be announced as well.

For more information, visit: http://www.arb.ca.gov/newsrel/newsrelease.php?id=468

June 18, 2013

Daniel Sperling, Ph.D., director of the Institute of Transportation Studies at the University of California, Davis, is one of two recipients of the 2013 Blue Planet Prize. The prize, announced today by the Asahi Glass Foundation of Tokyo, has been described as the Nobel Prize for the environmental sciences.

Sperling is an international expert on transportation technology, fuels and policy, with a focus on energy and environment. His research is directed at accelerating the global transition to cleaner, more efficient transportation and energy, and mitigating climate change. The award recognizes Sperling for his unique ability to bring together the top thinkers and strategists in academia, government and industry to develop new vehicle- and fuels-policy approaches that are models for the world.

“I am deeply honored to receive the Blue Planet Prize, and I share it with my many brilliant and passionate collaborators,” Sperling said. “I hope to use this time in the spotlight to promote universities’ tremendous reservoir of policy-relevant knowledge – particularly policy that averts the pending disaster of global climate change. My primary goal is to bring science to policy.”

“UC Davis faculty work every day to bring sound science to the world’s most pressing problems, and Daniel Sperling is a wonderful example of that,” said UC Davis chancellor Linda P.B. Katehi. “We are proud of his accomplishments and pleased that his efforts are being recognized through this prestigious prize.”

Sperling was chosen to receive the Blue Planet Prize from among 106 candidates representing 27 countries. Also being honored this year is Taroh Matsuno, principal scientist at the Research Institute for Global Change, in the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology.

A professor of Civil Engineering and Environmental Science and Policy, Sperling founded the Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS-Davis) in 1991. ITS-Davis is now the world’s leading academic program in transportation technology and policy, thanks to Sperling’s talent for building enduring partnerships with industry, government and the environmental community; integrating interdisciplinary research and education programs; and connecting research with public outreach and education. Today the Institute is home to 60 affiliated faculty and researchers and 120 graduate students, and a $12 million budget.

ITS-Davis researchers pursue topics as diverse as:

• Consumer response to advanced vehicle technologies, such as hybrid and electric cars
• Bike- and pedestrian-friendly community planning
• Traffic-flow theory
• Battery and ultracapacitor capabilities and comparisons
• World geopolitical implications of oil and natural gas development
• Biofuels investment and production strategies
• Multitasking and telecommuting
• Hydrogen fueling infrastructure, and
• The potential for converting the globe to 100 percent renewable energy.

Diverse though their interests may be, ITS-Davis researchers have in common a desire to educate the next generation and explore important research questions that contribute to knowledge. Many share a unique desire to apply their expertise and inform policy making at the local, state and national level.

Sperling championed early research into lifecycle analysis, with his students going on to develop the world’s most widely used lifecycle-analysis models for transportation fuels, and led the effort to transfer lifecycle assessment from labs into policy. For transportation fuel, lifecycle assessment means accounting for the emissions that occur in every stage of a fuel’s production and use.

The lifecycle approach is a critically important tool used to calculate greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate change, and other emissions that harm the environment. It forms the basis of many new climate and environmental policies around the globe.

“This year the world passed an ominous threshold—the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere exceeded 400 parts per million for the first time in human civilization,” Sperling said. Still, he is optimistic.

“Solutions are all around us. New technologies and new behaviors will transform our cities and energy systems. Policies are needed to stimulate innovation and encourage those changes in behavior, leading us to a tipping point of sustainable development. It is not easy, but with great effort we can recover our healthy blue planet,” he said.

A serial academic entrepreneur, Sperling has launched a diverse array of research centers under the auspices of ITS-Davis. They include the China Center on Energy and Transportation; the Energy Efficiency Center, the first university-based energy efficiency center in the United States; and the new Policy Institute for Energy, Environment and the Economy. Fifteen years ago, he created the Graduate Group in Transportation Technology and Policy, the unique, multidisciplinary program at the heart of ITS-Davis’s academic offerings. He also co-directs the Institute’s Sustainable Transportation Energy Pathways program, a four-year, multidisciplinary research program funded through a consortium of private and governmental organizations. He has advised corporations and governments around the world.

In 2007, then-Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger appointed Sperling to the state’s globally influential Air Resources Board, where his understanding of transportation and energy inform clean-air and energy policies. Sperling co-led the California Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS) study, which formed the basis of the revolutionary standard, the first of its kind to tackle carbon pollution from transportation fuel. The LCFS is in effect today in California and under consideration in other states. It is a model for similar polices in Canada and the European Union. ITS-Davis researchers provide technical support to California as it implements its clean fuels standard.

In the past 25 years, Sperling has authored or co-authored over 200 technical papers and 12 books, including “Two Billion Cars” (Oxford University Press, 2009). He has made 500 professional presentations in his career, including over 60 keynote talks in the past four years. He serves on numerous academic and research panels and in 2010 received a Heinz Award.

The Heinz Awards, awarded annually by the Heinz Family Foundation, honor the late U.S. Senator John Heinz by recognizing the extraordinary achievements of individuals in the areas of greatest importance to him. In 2010, the awards honored Sperling and nine other environmental innovators who are addressing global change caused by the impact of human activities and natural processes on the environment.

This year is the 22^nd year of the Blue Planet Prize. Previous recipients include: Amory B. Lovins, chairman and chief scientist of the Rocky Mountain Institute; Paul R. Ehrlich, director of the Center of Conservation Biology at Stanford University; Jane Lubchenco, under secretary of commerce for oceans and atmosphere and administrator for the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA); James Hansen, recently retired director of the U.S. NASA Goddard Institute for Space Studies; Joseph L. Sax, professor emeritus, University of California, Berkeley; David R. Brower, chairman of the Earth Island Institute; and Lester R. Brown, founder and president of the Worldwatch Institute.

“Many of my heroes have won this award, and I am humbled to join this distinguished group,” Sperling said.

Sperling will travel to Tokyo for the awards ceremony on October 30 and give a commemorative lecture on October 31. Each Blue Planet Prize recipient receives a certificate of merit, a commemorative trophy and a supplementary award of 50 million yen (about $500,000 U.S.).

Listen to Daniel Sperling discuss the Blue Planet Prize here: http://www.capradio.org/news/insight/2013/06/14/insight-062813/

U.S. Rep. John Garamendi remarks on the House Floor on the Blue Planet Prize: http://garamendi.house.gov/press-release/congressman-garamendi-highlights-uc-davis-efforts-combat-climate-change-promote-clean

The Transportation Research Board comments on the Blue Planet Prize: http://www.trb.org/Main/Blurbs/169141.aspx

About the Blue Planet Prize

The Blue Planet Prize was established in 1992 by the Asahi Glass Foundation of Tokyo. The award’s name was inspired by remarks of Russian cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, the first human in space, who observed that our blue planet is beautiful and we should work to preserve it. The Asahi Glass Foundation named the prize in the hope that “our blue planet will be a shared asset capable of sustaining human life far into the future.” http://www.af-info.or.jp/en/

About UC Davis

For more than 100 years, UC Davis has engaged in teaching, research and public service that matter to California and transform the world. Located close to the state capital, UC Davis has more than 33,000 students, more than 2,500 faculty and more than 21,000 staff, an annual research budget of nearly $750 million, a comprehensive health system and 13 specialized research centers. The university offers interdisciplinary graduate study and more than 100 undergraduate majors in four colleges — Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Biological Sciences, Engineering, and Letters and Science. It also houses six professional schools — Education, Law, Management, Medicine, Veterinary Medicine and the Betty Irene Moore School of Nursing.

Media contacts

• Daniel Sperling, UC Davis Institute of Transportation Studies, (510) 387-5438, dsperling@ucdavis.edu

• Tetsuro Yasuda, Asahi Glass Foundation, Tokyo, 81-3-5275-0620, post@af-info.or.jp

• Sylvia Wright, UC Davis Institute of Transportation Studies, swright@ucdavis.edu

In a public talk on June 27, ITS-Davis director Dan Sperling will document how we pioneered car-centric cities and lifestyles founded on abundant petroleum. He will explore opportunities for more sustainable transportation, focusing on the role of innovation and policy in bringing about low carbon fuels, electric-drive vehicles, socially-responsible behavior, enhanced mobility services, and low-carbon cities.

When: Thursday, June 27th, 2013
Time: Registration and networking: 5:30 pm – 6 pm, Presentation 6 pm – 7:30 pm
Where: UC Davis: Young Hall Room 194
Cost: AIA/USGBC members: $15, non-members $20 ($20, $25 at the door) 

Download flyer: http://www.aiacv.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Visionary_Sperling_flyer_FINAL.pdf

Purchase tickets: http://www.brownpapertickets.com/e/393408

Hosts of this event are AIA Central Valley, the local chapter of The American Institute of Architects, which serves architects and the public in 17 northern California counties, and the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), a 501(c)(3) nonprofit organization committed to a prosperous and sustainable future for our nation through cost-efficient and energy-saving green buildings.